San’at Art: Uzbek Culture

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Archive of San’at magazine   San’at Art Magazine 1-2 2005 >>>   1. Pages of history 2. Medieval Art of Sogd 3. Samarkand governors 4. Symbolical “texts” of Afrasiab 5. Amir Temur and Philippe Brunelleschi 6. Under Auroral standards 7. The musical instruments of Samarkand 8. Samarkand Ceramics 9. Samarkand Suzane 10. The national costume 11. Under a spell of the East 12. Samarkand – harmony of forms 13. The Storyteller from Childhood 14. Art – Therapy 15. Music of Samarkand 16. Art is over the borders 17. G.A. Pugachenkova 18. New Books 19. Chronicle of Art Life     1. Architecture 2. Horse equipment 3. Interior decor 4. Karakalpak woman 5. The master of Uzbek 6. Artist – Epoch – History 7. Poet Gafur Kadyirov 8. Song of the Soul 9. The dynasty of artists 10. Vladimir Pilipyuk 11. Batir Zakirov and “Music hall” 12. Cinematography 13. Cooperation of Uzbek 14. Uzbek – French contacts 15. Chronicle of Art Life     1. Palette of the Ancient Artist 2. Look back at your home 3. Art metal 4. Tashkent Biennale – 2003 5. Temurgalib Djamolutdinov 6. Bahtiyor Mahkamov 7. The Sea is leaving 8. Dmitry Novakov 9. Eshmamat Khayitov 10. Uzbek pop music 11. Boysun historical 12. The Boysun Deer 13. Art of Uzbekistan 14. Speech of Art 15. Sculptors in Navoi 16. New Schoolbook 17. Chronicle of Art Life     1. From history of Bukhara’s 2. Splendour of Bukhara 3. Hydro Architecture of the Bukhara 4. Bukhara’s costume 5. Plan-miniature of Bukhara 6. Bukhara’s Art of jewelry 7. Decor in Bukhara’s 8. Lively colors of Bukhara’s 9. Bukhara’s Gold Embroidery 10. Bukhara’s Artist 11. View of Bukhara’s sculpture 12. Abduvohid Krimov 13. Mutavakkil Burkhanov 14. Chronicle of Art Life     1. Hellenic traditions 2. Reconstruction of Chorustun 3. Architectural masterpieces 4. Dialogue 5. Desert and Garden 6. The Uzbek path of cubism 7. Vakhob Ziyaev 8. The Reflection 9. To art biography 10. Khazarasp 11. Musical Portraits of Cities 12. Art in Centuries 13. Chronicle of Art Life 14. The World of Fine Arts     1. Monuments of ancient art 2. Capitals – columns from Mizdahkan 3. Ritual jewelry 4. Kiymeshek 5. The Unique Treasury 6. My Karakalpakstan 7. Crystal – clear streets 8. Phenomenon of Edison Kee’s Art 9. Khodjimetov Sherzod 10. Baksi and Jyrau 11. Musical Spring in Boysun 12. Boysun Ceramics 13. International contacts 14. Chronicle of Art Life     1. Navruz 2. Coroplastics of East Kashkadrya 3. Uzbekistan and Spain 4. Rabats and Sardoba of Abdullakhan 5. Makhallya in Evolution of the City 6. Peter Annenkov 7. Echo of Ancient Epos 8. Akhmetshina Rezeda 9. Ikram Akbarov and Evolution 10. Metamorphoses 11. Rhythms of Inspiration 12. Our Dear Old 13. Seismograph 14. Chronicle of Art Life     1. High Day for Soul 2. Ancient Korea and Ancient Uzbekistan 3. Central Asian Beads 4. Wall Painting at Tavka 5. Buddhist Mandalas 6. Ceramic of Bukhara 7. Lions in Seclusion 8. Ages of Prosperity 9. Relief of the Memory 10. Artist Alisher Alikulov 11. Uzbek Pop – Music 12. Inanimate Puppet Playing 13. Chronicle of Art Life     1. The Cultic Semantics of Ceramics 2. The Medieval Vessel 3. The Urban Development 4. The Art World 5. The Hunter after Secret 6. “Navkiron Uzbekiston” 7. Clothing of the Kungrat Women 8. The Tapestry 9. Muse Of Photograph 10. Another Cinema 11. Analysis of historical prototypes 12. Chronicle of Art Life     1. Historical Civilizations 2. To Phenomenology 3. The Khorezm Jewelry Art 4. The Gijduvan Traditional Embroidery 5. “Thirst of life” Tura Shomirzaev 6. The Way to Poetry and Philosophy 7. Gobelins of Olim Ismoilov 8. Boysun – bahori 9. The Festival Becomes 10. The Iranian Miniature 11. The Jewelry – Land 12. Congratulations 13. Chronicle of Art Life     1. A new primitive art 2. Gava Sughda – Nautaka – Kesh 3. The architectural masterpieces 4. The embroidery of Shahrisabz 5. Creating means revealing 6. Sculptor Ravshan Mirtajiyev 7. Jurat Rahmani 8. Ceramic artist Ashur Mamasoliyev 9. Zaur Mansurov 10. Abdujabbor Nazilov 11. A small theatre 12. Bakhtiyor Turayev 13. The colourful threads 14. Composer Mirsadyk Tajiyev 15. Art chronicle

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Sembilan Wali ( WALI SONGO )

“Walisongo” berarti sembilan orang wali. Mereka adalah Maulana Malik Ibrahim, Sunan Ampel, Sunan Giri, Sunan Bonang, Sunan Dradjad, Sunan Kalijaga, Sunan Kudus, Sunan Muria, serta Sunan Gunung Jati. Mereka tidak hidup pada saat yang persis bersamaan. Namun satu sama lain mempunyai keterkaitan erat, bila tidak dalam ikatan darah juga dalam hubungan guru-murid. Maulana Malik Ibrahim yang tertua. Sunan Ampel anak Maulana Malik Ibrahim. Sunan Giri adalah keponakan Maulana Malik Ibrahim yang berarti juga sepupu Sunan Ampel. Sunan Bonang dan Sunan Drajad adalah anak Sunan Ampel. Sunan Kalijaga merupakan sahabat sekaligus murid Sunan Bonang. Sunan Muria anak Sunan Kalijaga. Sunan Kudus murid Sunan Kalijaga. Sunan Gunung Jati adalah sahabat para Sunan lain, kecuali Maulana Malik Ibrahim yang lebih dahulu meninggal. Mereka tinggal di pantai utara Jawa dari awal abad 15 hingga pertengahan abad 16, di tiga wilayah penting. Yakni Surabaya-Gresik-Lamongan di Jawa Timur, Demak-Kudus-Muria di Jawa Tengah, serta Cirebon di Jawa Barat. Mereka adalah para intelektual yang menjadi pembaharu masyarakat pada masanya. Mereka mengenalkan berbagai bentuk peradaban baru: mulai dari kesehatan, bercocok tanam, niaga, kebudayaan dan kesenian, kemasyarakatan hingga pemerintahan. Pesantren Ampel Denta dan Giri adalah dua institusi pendidikan paling penting di masa itu. Dari Giri, peradaban Islam berkembang ke seluruh wilayah timur Nusantara. Sunan Giri dan Sunan Gunung Jati bukan hanya ulama, namun juga pemimpin pemerintahan. Sunan Giri, Bonang, Kalijaga, dan Kudus adalah kreator karya seni yang pengaruhnya masih terasa hingga sekarang. Sedangkan Sunan Muria adalah pendamping sejati kaum jelata.
Era Walisongo adalah era berakhirnya dominasi Hindu-Budha dalam budaya Nusantara untuk digantikan dengan kebudayaan Islam. Mereka adalah simbol penyebaran Islam di Indonesia. Khususnya di Jawa. Tentu banyak tokoh lain yang juga berperan. Namun peranan mereka yang sangat besar dalam mendirikan Kerajaan Islam di Jawa, juga pengaruhnya terhadap kebudayaan masyarakat secara luas serta dakwah secara langsung, membuat “sembilan wali” ini lebih banyak disebut dibanding yang lain. Masing-masing tokoh tersebut mempunyai peran yang unik dalam penyebaran Islam. Mulai dari Maulana Malik Ibrahim yang menempatkan diri sebagai “tabib” bagi Kerajaan Hindu Majapahit; Sunan Giri yang disebut para kolonialis sebagai “paus dari Timur” hingga Sunan Kalijaga yang mencipta karya kesenian dengan menggunakan nuansa yang dapat dipahami masyarakat Jawa -yakni nuansa Hindu dan Budha .

Maulana Malik Ibrahim (Wafat 1419)

Maulana Malik Ibrahim, atau Makdum Ibrahim As-Samarkandy diperkirakan lahir di Samarkand, Asia Tengah, pada paruh awal abad 14. Babad Tanah Jawi versi Meinsma menyebutnya Asmarakandi, mengikuti pengucapan lidah Jawa terhadap As-Samarkandy, berubah menjadi Asmarakandi.
Maulana Malik Ibrahim kadang juga disebut sebagai Syekh Magribi. Sebagian rakyat malah menyebutnya Kakek Bantal. Ia bersaudara dengan Maulana Ishak, ulama terkenal di Samudra Pasai, sekaligus ayah dari Sunan Giri (Raden Paku). Ibrahim dan Ishak adalah anak dari seorang ulama Persia, bernama Maulana Jumadil Kubro, yang menetap di Samarkand. Maulana Jumadil Kubro diyakini sebagai keturunan ke-10 dari Syayidina Husein, cucu Nabi Muhammad saw. Maulana Malik Ibrahim pernah bermukim di Campa, sekarang Kamboja, selama tiga belas tahun sejak tahun 1379. Ia malah menikahi putri raja, yang memberinya dua putra. Mereka adalah Raden Rahmat (dikenal dengan Sunan Ampel) dan Sayid Ali Murtadha alias Raden Santri. Merasa cukup menjalankan misi dakwah di negeri itu, tahun 1392 M Maulana Malik Ibrahim hijrah ke Pulau Jawa meninggalkan keluarganya. Beberapa versi menyatakan bahwa kedatangannya disertai beberapa orang. Daerah yang ditujunya pertama kali yakni desa Sembalo, daerah yang masih berada dalam wilayah kekuasaan Majapahit. Desa Sembalo sekarang, adalah daerah Leran kecamatan Manyar, 9 kilometer utara kota Gresik. Aktivitas pertama yang dilakukannya ketika itu adalah berdagang dengan cara membuka warung. Warung itu menyediakan kebutuhan pokok dengan harga murah. Selain itu secara khusus Malik Ibrahim juga menyediakan diri untuk mengobati masyarakat secara gratis. Sebagai tabib, kabarnya, ia pernah diundang untuk mengobati istri raja yang berasal dari Campa. Besar kemungkinan permaisuri tersebut masih kerabat istrinya. Kakek Bantal juga mengajarkan cara-cara baru bercocok tanam. Ia merangkul masyarakat bawah -kasta yang disisihkan dalam Hindu. Maka sempurnalah misi pertamanya, yaitu mencari tempat di hati masyarakat sekitar yang ketika itu tengah dilanda krisis ekonomi dan perang saudara. Selesai membangun dan menata pondokan tempat belajar agama di Leran, tahun 1419 M Maulana Malik Ibrahim wafat. Makamnya kini terdapat di kampung Gapura, Gresik, Jawa Timur.

Sunan Ampel

Ia putera tertua Maulana Malik Ibrahim. Menurut Babad Tanah Jawi dan Silsilah Sunan Kudus, di masa kecilnya ia dikenal dengan nama Raden Rahmat. Ia lahir di Campa pada 1401 Masehi. Nama Ampel sendiri, diidentikkan dengan nama tempat dimana ia lama bermukim. Di daerah Ampel atau Ampel Denta, wilayah yang kini menjadi bagian dari Surabaya (kota Wonokromo sekarang).Beberapa versi menyatakan bahwa Sunan Ampel masuk ke pulau Jawa pada tahun 1443 M bersama Sayid Ali Murtadho, sang adik. Tahun 1440, sebelum ke Jawa, mereka singgah dulu di Palembang. Setelah tiga tahun di Palembang, kemudian ia melabuh ke daerah Gresik. Dilanjutkan pergi ke Majapahit menemui bibinya, seorang putri dari Campa, bernama Dwarawati, yang dipersunting salah seorang raja Majapahit beragama Hindu bergelar Prabu Sri Kertawijaya. Sunan Ampel menikah dengan putri seorang adipati di Tuban. Dari perkawinannya itu ia dikaruniai beberapa putera dan puteri. Diantaranya yang menjadi penerusnya adalah Sunan Bonang dan Sunan Drajat. Ketika Kesultanan Demak (25 kilometer arah selatan kota Kudus) hendak didirikan, Sunan Ampel turut membidani lahirnya kerajaan Islam pertama di Jawa itu. Ia pula yang menunjuk muridnya Raden Patah, putra dari Prabu Brawijaya V raja Majapahit, untuk menjadi Sultan Demak tahun 1475 M.
Di Ampel Denta yang berawa-rawa, daerah yang dihadiahkan Raja Majapahit, ia membangun mengembangkan pondok pesantren. Mula-mula ia merangkul masyarakat sekitarnya. Pada pertengahan Abad 15, pesantren tersebut menjadi sentra pendidikan yang sangat berpengaruh di wilayah Nusantara bahkan mancanegara. Di antara para santrinya adalah Sunan Giri dan Raden Patah. Para santri tersebut kemudian disebarnya untuk berdakwah ke berbagai pelosok Jawa dan Madura. Sunan Ampel menganut fikih mahzab Hanafi. Namun, pada para santrinya, ia hanya memberikan pengajaran sederhana yang menekankan pada penanaman akidah dan ibadah. Dia-lah yang mengenalkan istilah “Mo Limo” (moh main, moh ngombe, moh maling, moh madat, moh madon). Yakni seruan untuk “tidak berjudi, tidak minum minuman keras, tidak mencuri, tidak menggunakan narkotik, dan tidak berzina.” Sunan Ampel diperkirakan wafat pada tahun 1481 M di Demak dan dimakamkan di sebelah barat Masjid Ampel, Surabaya.

Sunan Bonang

Ia anak Sunan Ampel, yang berarti juga cucu Maulana Malik Ibrahim. Nama kecilnya adalah Raden Makdum Ibrahim. Lahir diperkirakan 1465 M dari seorang perempuan bernama Nyi Ageng Manila, puteri seorang adipati di Tuban. Sunan Bonang belajar agama dari pesantren ayahnya di Ampel Denta. Setelah cukup dewasa, ia berkelana untuk berdakwah di berbagai pelosok Pulau Jawa. Mula-mula ia berdakwah di Kediri, yang mayoritas masyarakatnya beragama Hindu. Di sana ia mendirikan Masjid Sangkal Daha. Ia kemudian menetap di Bonang -desa kecil di Lasem, Jawa Tengah -sekitar 15 kilometer timur kota Rembang. Di desa itu ia membangun tempat pesujudan/zawiyah sekaligus pesantren yang kini dikenal dengan nama Watu Layar. Ia kemudian dikenal pula sebagai imam resmi pertama Kesultanan Demak, dan bahkan sempat menjadi panglima tertinggi. Meskipun demikian, Sunan Bonang tak
pernah menghentikan kebiasaannya untuk berkelana ke daerah-daerah yang sangat sulit. Ia acap berkunjung ke daerah-daerah terpencil di Tuban, Pati, Madura maupun Pulau Bawean. Di Pulau inilah, pada 1525 M ia meninggal. Jenazahnya dimakamkan di Tuban, di sebelah barat Masjid Agung, setelah sempat diperebutkan oleh masyarakat Bawean dan Tuban. Tak seperti Sunan Giri yang lugas dalam fikih, ajaran Sunan Bonang memadukan ajaran ahlussunnah bergaya tasawuf dan garis salaf ortodoks. Ia menguasai ilmu fikih, usuludin, tasawuf, seni, sastra dan arsitektur. Masyarakat juga mengenal Sunan Bonang sebagai seorang yang piawai mencari sumber air di tempat-tempat gersang.Ajaran Sunan Bonang berintikan pada filsafat ‘cinta'(‘isyq). Sangat mirip dengan kecenderungan Jalalludin Rumi. Menurut Bonang, cinta sama dengan iman, pengetahuan intuitif (makrifat) dan kepatuhan kepada Allah SWT atau haq al yaqqin. Ajaran tersebut disampaikannya secara populer melalui media kesenian yang disukai masyarakat. Dalam hal ini, Sunan Bonang bahu-membahu dengan murid utamanya, Sunan Kalijaga. Sunan Bonang banyak melahirkan karya sastra berupa suluk, atau tembang tamsil. Salah satunya adalah “Suluk Wijil” yang tampak dipengaruhi kitab Al Shidiq karya Abu Sa’id Al Khayr (wafat pada 899). Suluknya banyak menggunakan tamsil cermin, bangau atau burung laut. Sebuah pendekatan yang juga digunakan oleh Ibnu Arabi, Fariduddin Attar, Rumi serta Hamzah Fansuri. Sunan Bonang juga menggubah gamelan Jawa yang saat itu kental dengan estetika Hindu, dengan memberi nuansa baru. Dialah yang menjadi kreator gamelan Jawa seperti sekarang, dengan menambahkan instrumen bonang. Gubahannya ketika itu memiliki nuansa dzikir yang mendorong kecintaan pada kehidupan transedental (alam malakut). Tembang “Tombo Ati” adalah salah satu karya Sunan Bonang. Dalam pentas pewayangan, Sunan Bonang adalah dalang yang piawai membius penontonnya. Kegemarannya adalah menggubah lakon dan memasukkan tafsir-tafsir khas Islam. Kisah perseteruan Pandawa-Kurawa ditafsirkan Sunan Bonang sebagai peperangan antara nafi (peniadaan) dan ‘isbah (peneguhan).

Sunan Kalijaga

Dialah “wali” yang namanya paling banyak disebut masyarakat Jawa. Ia lahir sekitar tahun 1450 Masehi. Ayahnya adalah Arya Wilatikta, Adipati Tuban -keturunan dari tokoh pemberontak Majapahit, Ronggolawe. Masa itu, Arya Wilatikta diperkirakan telah menganut Islam. Nama kecil Sunan Kalijaga adalah Raden Said. Ia juga memiliki sejumlah nama panggilan seperti Lokajaya,Syekh Malaya, Pangeran Tuban atau Raden Abdurrahman.Terdapat beragam versi menyangkut asal-usul nama Kalijaga yang disandangnya.Masyarakat Cirebon berpendapat bahwa nama itu berasal dari dusun Kalijaga di Cirebon. Sunan Kalijaga memang pernah tinggal di Cirebon dan bersahabat erat dengan Sunan Gunung Jati. Kalangan Jawa mengaitkannya dengan kesukaan wali ini untuk berendam (‘kungkum’) di sungai (kali) atau “jaga kali”. Namun ada yang menyebut istilah itu berasal dari bahasa Arab “qadli dzaqa” yang menunjuk statusnya sebagai “penghulu suci” kesultanan. Masa hidup Sunan Kalijaga diperkirakan mencapai lebih dari 100 tahun. Dengan demikian ia mengalami masa akhir kekuasaan Majapahit (berakhir 1478), Kesultanan Demak, Kesultanan Cirebon dan Banten, bahkan juga Kerajaan Pajang yang lahir pada 1546 serta awal kehadiran Kerajaan Mataram dibawah pimpinan Panembahan Senopati. Ia ikut pula merancang pembangunan Masjid Agung Cirebon dan Masjid Agung Demak. Tiang “tatal” (pecahan kayu) yang merupakan salah satu dari tiang utama masjid adalah kreasi Sunan Kalijaga. Dalam dakwah, ia punya pola yang sama dengan mentor sekaligus sahabat dekatnya, Sunan Bonang. Paham keagamaannya cenderung “sufistik berbasis salaf” -bukan sufi panteistik (pemujaan semata). Ia juga memilih kesenian dan kebudayaan sebagai sarana untuk berdakwah. Ia sangat toleran pada budaya lokal. Ia berpendapat bahwa masyarakat akan menjauh jika diserang pendiriannya. Maka mereka harus didekati secara bertahap: mengikuti sambil mempengaruhi. Sunan Kalijaga berkeyakinan jika Islam sudah dipahami, dengan sendirinya kebiasaan lama hilang. Maka ajaran Sunan Kalijaga terkesan sinkretis dalam mengenalkan Islam. Ia menggunakan seni ukir, wayang, gamelan, serta seni suara suluk sebagai sarana dakwah. Dialah pencipta Baju takwa, perayaan sekatenan, grebeg maulud, Layang Kalimasada, lakon wayang Petruk Jadi Raja. Lanskap pusat kota berupa Kraton, alun-alun dengan dua beringin serta masjid diyakini sebagai karya Sunan Kalijaga.
Metode dakwah tersebut sangat efektif. Sebagian besar adipati di Jawa memeluk Islam melalui Sunan Kalijaga. Di antaranya adalah Adipati Padanaran, Kartasura, Kebumen, Banyumas, serta Pajang (sekarang Kotagede – Yogya). Sunan Kalijaga dimakamkan di Kadilangu -selatan Demak

Sunan Gunung Jati

Banyak kisah tak masuk akal yang dikaitkan dengan Sunan Gunung Jati. Diantaranya adalah bahwa ia pernah mengalami perjalanan spiritual seperti Isra’ Mi’raj, lalu bertemu Rasulullah SAW, bertemu Nabi Khidir, dan menerima wasiat Nabi Sulaeman. (Babad Cirebon Naskah Klayan hal.xxii). Semua itu hanya mengisyaratkan kekaguman masyarakat masa itu pada Sunan Gunung Jati. Sunan Gunung Jati atau Syarif Hidayatullah diperkirakan lahir sekitar tahun 1448 M. Ibunya adalah Nyai Rara Santang, putri dari raja Pajajaran Raden Manah Rarasa. Sedangkan ayahnya adalah Sultan Syarif Abdullah Maulana Huda, pembesar Mesir keturunan Bani Hasyim dari Palestina. Syarif Hidayatullah mendalami ilmu agama sejak berusia 14 tahun dari para ulama Mesir. Ia sempat berkelana ke berbagai negara. Menyusul berdirinya Kesultanan Bintoro Demak, dan atas restu kalangan ulama lain, ia mendirikan Kasultanan Cirebon yang juga dikenal sebagai Kasultanan Pakungwati.
Dengan demikian, Sunan Gunung Jati adalah satu-satunya “wali songo” yang memimpin pemerintahan. Sunan Gunung Jati memanfaatkan pengaruhnya sebagai putra Raja Pajajaran untuk menyebarkan Islam dari pesisir Cirebon ke pedalaman Pasundan atau Priangan. Dalam berdakwah, ia menganut kecenderungan Timur Tengah yang lugas. Namun ia juga mendekati rakyat dengan membangun infrastruktur berupa jalan-jalan yang menghubungkan antar wilayah. Bersama putranya, Maulana Hasanuddin, Sunan Gunung Jati juga melakukan ekspedisi ke Banten. Penguasa setempat, Pucuk Umum, menyerahkan sukarela penguasaan wilayah Banten tersebut yang kemudian menjadi cikal bakal Kesultanan Banten. Pada usia 89 tahun, Sunan Gunung Jati mundur dari jabatannya untuk hanya menekuni dakwah. Kekuasaan itu diserahkannya kepada Pangeran Pasarean. Pada tahun 1568 M, Sunan Gunung Jati wafat dalam usia 120 tahun, di Cirebon (dulu Carbon). Ia dimakamkan di daerah Gunung Sembung, Gunung Jati, sekitar 15 kilometer sebelum kota Cirebon dari arah barat.

Sunan Kudus

Nama kecilnya Jaffar Shadiq. Ia putra pasangan Sunan Ngudung dan Syarifah (adik Sunan Bonang), anak Nyi Ageng Maloka. Disebutkan bahwa Sunan Ngudung adalah salah seorang putra Sultan di Mesir yang berkelana hingga di Jawa. Di Kesultanan Demak, ia pun diangkat menjadi Panglima Perang. Sunan Kudus banyak berguru pada Sunan Kalijaga. Kemudian ia berkelana ke berbagai daerah tandus di Jawa Tengah seperti Sragen, Simo hingga Gunung Kidul. Cara berdakwahnya pun meniru pendekatan Sunan Kalijaga: sangat toleran pada budaya setempat. Cara penyampaiannya bahkan lebih halus. Itu sebabnya para wali –yang kesulitan mencari pendakwah ke Kudus yang mayoritas masyarakatnya pemeluk teguh-menunjuknya. Cara Sunan Kudus mendekati masyarakat Kudus adalah dengan memanfaatkan simbol-simbol Hindu dan Budha. Hal itu terlihat dari arsitektur masjid Kudus. Bentuk menara, gerbang dan pancuran/padasan wudhu yang melambangkan delapan jalan Budha. Sebuah wujud kompromi yang dilakukan Sunan Kudus. Suatu waktu, ia memancing masyarakat untuk pergi ke masjid mendengarkan tabligh-nya. Untuk itu, ia sengaja menambatkan sapinya yang diberi nama Kebo Gumarang di hala
man masjid. Orang-orang Hindu yang mengagungkan sapi, menjadi simpati. Apalagi setelah mereka mendengar penjelasan Sunan Kudus tentang surat Al Baqarah yang berarti “sapi betina”. Sampai sekarang, sebagian masyarakat tradisional Kudus, masih menolak untuk menyembelih sapi.Sunan Kudus juga menggubah cerita-cerita ketauhidan. Kisah tersebut disusunnya secara berseri, sehingga masyarakat tertarik untuk mengikuti kelanjutannya. Sebuah pendekatan yang tampaknya mengadopsi cerita 1001 malam dari masa kekhalifahan Abbasiyah. Dengan begitulah Sunan Kudus mengikat masyarakatnya.
Bukan hanya berdakwah seperti itu yang dilakukan Sunan Kudus. Sebagaimana ayahnya, ia juga pernah menjadi Panglima Perang Kesultanan Demak. Ia ikut bertempur saat Demak, di bawah kepemimpinan Sultan Prawata, bertempur melawan Adipati Jipang, Arya Penangsang.

Sunan Muria

Ia putra Dewi Saroh –adik kandung Sunan Giri sekaligus anak Syekh Maulana Ishak, dengan Sunan Kalijaga. Nama kecilnya adalah Raden Prawoto. Nama Muria diambil dari tempat tinggal terakhirnya di lereng Gunung Muria, 18 kilometer ke utara kota Kudus.Gaya berdakwahnya banyak mengambil cara ayahnya, Sunan Kalijaga. Namun berbeda dengan sang ayah, Sunan Muria lebih suka tinggal di daerah sangat terpencil dan jauh dari pusat kota untuk menyebarkan agama Islam. Bergaul dengan rakyat jelata, sambil mengajarkan keterampilan-keterampilan bercocok tanam, berdagang dan melaut adalah kesukaannya. Sunan Muria seringkali dijadikan pula sebagai penengah dalam konflik internal di Kesultanan Demak (1518-1530), Ia dikenal sebagai pribadi yang mampu memecahkan berbagai masalah betapapun rumitnya masalah itu. Solusi pemecahannya pun selalu dapat diterima oleh semua pihak yang berseteru. Sunan Muria berdakwah dari Jepara, Tayu, Juana hingga sekitar Kudus dan Pati. Salah satu hasil dakwahnya lewat seni adalah lagu Sinom dan Kinanti .

Sumber pustaka:

http://planet.time.net.my/Parliament/jwan/htmstuff/SembilanWali.htm

The Great Exposition of the Law of Karma

Buddhism postulates that for every cause there is an effect. Those who undertake good actions generate good effects, while those who initiate wrongful actions generate bad effects. Although the person committing the act may not immediately realize the results generated by his or her actions, the karmic effect will eventually play out, if not in this life then in a future existence.

In 1885, the Borobudur’s Dutch conservators removed a portion of the stone casing that surrounds the entire monument in order to be able to repair the sagging walls and floors of the first gallery. To their amazement they discovered a series of previously unknown relief panels located directly under the curved molding that surrounds the monument’s outermost walled perimeter. The vast majority of these 160 relief panels were last seen in 1891, when archaeologists restored the monument’s casing stones to their original positions. During World War II, however, soldiers from the Japanese occupational force decided to uncover the hidden reliefs located at the southeast corner of the monument’s base. When archaeologists restored Borobudur during the 1980s, they decided to allow this southeast corner to remain exposed so that future visitors would be able to see a few fine examples of these reliefs for themselves. (1)

Several of the hidden reliefs bear short inscriptions written in the Old Javanese language. Others have suggested that the architect may have elected to write down a few key words on the panels to give the sculptors some directions as to the nature of the scenes to be carved.

These short inscriptions present “…graphical features similar to those in the script commonly used in royal charters between the last quarter of the 8th century and the first decades of the 9th. The obvious conclusion is that Candi Borobudur was very likely founded around the year 800 AD.” (2)

The content of these hidden reliefs is loosely based on a Sanskrit Buddhist text called the Mahakarmavibhangga (“Great Exposition of the Law of Karma”). Buddhism postulates that for every cause there is an effect. Those who undertake good actions generate good effects, while those who initiate wrongful actions generate bad effects. Although the person committing the act may not immediately realize the results generated by his or her actions, the karmic effect will eventually play out, if not in this life then in a future existence or reincarnation.

The Sanskrit-based Mahayana edition of the “Great Exposition of the Law of Karma” has never been fully translated into English. However, a Japanese edition is presently being prepared for publication. In response to an email from this writer, Professor Mauro Maggi replied that his recently issued book “…is an edition and translation of the Karmavibhanga fragments in Khotanese, a Middle Iranian language. The Khotanese version does not correspond to any of the known versions of the texts, including the Central Asian ones (Sanskrit, Sogdian, Tocharian). The Nepal manuscripts used by S. Lévi are being diplomatically edited in Japan (four installments have appeared so far in the “Annual report of The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University” (1998-2001). I am not aware of any complete English translation of the Nepalese Sanskrit recension, which might be sensible only if based on a new reading of the manuscripts (available from the Nepal-German Manuscripts Preservation Project) or on the Japanese diplomatical edition, once it is completed.”

However, a few short quotations from the Mahakarmavigghanga in English are available from various sources. For example, the Buddha tells the young Brahmin Shuka that there are a total of eighteen benefits to be derived from the building a Tathagata Stupa.

“What are these eighteen?

One will be born as the child of a great king
One will have a noble body
One will become beautiful and very attractive
One will have sharp sense faculties
One will be powerful and famous
One will have a great entourage of servants
One will become a leader of men
One will be a support to all
One will be renowned in the ten directions
One will be able to express oneself in words and verses extensively
One will receive offerings from men and gods
One will possess many riches
One will obtain the kingdom of a universal monarch
One will have long life
One’s body will be like a collection of vajras
One’s body will be endowed with the major marks and the minor signs (of a Buddha)
One will take rebirth in the three higher realms
One will swiftly attain complete nirvana

These eighteen points are the benefits of building a Tathagata Stupa.”

Elsewhere in the text the Buddha says the following:

“If in this life you often use harsh speech to irritate others, and if you delight in exposing their private matters, and if you are stubborn and unyielding, then in your next life you will be born as a fire-spewing hungry ghost.”

We may derive additional information concerning the contents of this text by examining the version of the Mahakarmavibhangga that appears in the Pali Canon of Theravada Buddhism.

In the Pali version of the text, the Sakyamuni presents a discourse in which he describes various human actions and their corresponding results. He begins by listing the ten wrongful actions of the evil-doer: killing living beings, stealing, engaging in sexual misconduct, speaking falsely, speaking maliciously, speaking harshly, engaging in gossip, coveting that which belongs to others, harboring ill will toward others, and holding wrongful views. In addition, he delineates the ten rightful actions, which consist of abstention from committing the aforementioned ten wrongful activities.

According to the Buddha, the minds of individuals are complex, generating a variety of karmic results within a single lifetime. The result of any karmic action may not even be realized during the same existence in which the act has been committed. Moreover, it is incorrect to presume that the evildoer always goes to hell, or that the good man always goes to heaven. Instead, the Buddha lists four possible outcomes concerning the evildoer who goes to hell, the evil doer who goes to heaven, the good man who goes to heaven, and the good man who goes to hell.

It is entirely possible, said the Buddha, that any good actions that a person commits just before death could result in an evildoer going straight to heaven. Or the evil actions of a person committed just before death could cause someone whom had previously performed numerous acts of merit to go straight to hell upon the dissolution of the body. However, neither heaven nor hell is to be regarded as a permanent condition. Each individual will eventually be reborn into future existences where the karma they have generated during previous lives will inevitably exert its effect.

The Javanese artists have succeeding in transforming the d
ry, abstract contents of the text into a wonderful series of lively snapshots of Javanese village life during the period in which Borobudur was constructed, including scenes that depict people relaxing at home, working in the rice paddies, visiting the market, or fishing along the banks of a river.

The reliefs have been structured show both the good and evil sides of the karmic equation, with some scenes portraying the punishments of hell while others display the rewards of heaven, with each panel that illustrates a karmic action immediately followed by a second panel that portrays the result of that action. The first 117 reliefs in the series portray a variety of different actions, all of which lead to an identical result, while the remaining 43 panels display the various results that can arise from a single action.

Only 23 of the 160 panels in the series actually appear to portray the examples that the Buddha sets forth in the versions of the Mahakarmavibhangga Sutra that have survived into modern times. The remaining reliefs are either based on a secondary text or are the result of a purely local interpretation of the primary scripture. In either case, the reliefs reflect how the Javanese once viewed the Law of Karma within the context of their own indigenous customs and beliefs. (3)

Although no one knows with certainty why Borobudur’s architect had decided to shroud these beautifully executed reliefs in eternal darkness, several modern investigators have proposed possible explanations. During the 1980s when archaeologists were restoring Borobudur they discovered a large number of carved architectural elements underneath the monument’s northern stairway. Although none of this debris belonged to the monument that visitors, the carved stones appeared to belong to a building that must have been quite similar to Borobudur. An earthquake could have caused part of the building to collapse during construction, which would explain the opening up of a wide gully in the hillside. In this case, it would have been natural for he architect to use these damaged elements as infill before renewing the construction effort in order to lend further stability to the monument. This would explain the purpose of the stone casing that surrounds the entire monument, which may have been intended to enhance the pyramid’s structural stability. However, the modern structural engineers who have examined Borobudur says that the architect could have employed far less drastic measures than deploying a veritable mountain of stone.

Supporters of the instability theory point to other on-site evidence that seems to support the proposition that Borobudur’s architect abandon the reliefs of the hidden foot for structural reasons. For example, when the casing stones were fitted over the hidden foot a few of the hidden panels were carelessly damaged, while other panels in the series were never completed. Had the architect simply decided to bury these reliefs underneath the promenade casing stones and then simply forget about them?

Others believe that despite their lack of visibility, the reliefs of the hidden foot continued to play an invisible role in the monument’s symbolic existence long after their disappearance. Since ancient times, the layout of the Javanese village home has followed a symbolic plan that is intended to conform in microcosm with the structure of the universe at large.

“In the vertical plane, the house is typically divided into a tripartite scheme of things, where the roof space is identified with the realm of the gods and the floor level represents the mundane world of everyday existence. The void beneath the house is linked to an underworld populated by malevolent spirits, the souls of the dead and other supernatural agencies. In symbolic terms, movement from one part of the house to another represents cosmological journey between these different realms whose mystical geography is delineated in myth and ritual….” (4)

For the Javanese, the area beneath the house was a place of potential danger. For this reason, offerings of food were left in this area to placate malevolent spirits who might otherwise elect to prey upon the human resident above. It is not untenable to suggest that the builders of Borobudur had elected to place an offering of spiritual ‘food’ in the monument’s basement so that the denizens of the underworld would not prey upon the pious pilgrims who walked above. In addition, the hidden reliefs would have fulfilled one of the primary aims of the aspiring bodhisattva, who vows to seek the salvation of “sentient” beings everywhere, even unto the depths of hell. Even today the natives of Bali place small baskets on the ground outside of their homes and businesses that contain food, drink, flowers, and incense. The offerings are intended to placate malevolent spirits of the underworld. By contrast, the Balinese place offerings that are intended for the gods on top of the high shrines located in the corners of their family compounds.

FOOTNOTES:

(1) Perhaps the 160 relief panels of the Mahakarmavibbgangga may have a numerical significance in relationship to the 160 streams of consciousness that another Buddhist texts states is a contributor to the generation of karmic results. According to the Mahavairocana Sutra, a total of 60 “atomic” minds combine in various permutations to generate a total of 160 “molecular” streams of consciousness. (See the Enlightenment of Vairocana, translated by Alex Wayman, p. 41.)

(2) Borobudur: A Monument of Mankind by Dr. Soekmono, p. 9.

(3) Professor Ryusho Hikata has suggested a correlation between certain panels of this series and a sixth-century Buddhist text called the Lokaprajnapty-abhidharma. See Cultural Horizons of India, Volume IV by Lokesh Chandra, pp. 76-77.

(4) Indonesian Heritage: Architecture, p. 18.

Web source: http://www.borobudur.tv/karma_1.htm

Kakawin Sutasoma

Buddha berreinkarnasi dan menitis kepada putra raja Hastina, prabu Mahaketu. Putranya ini bernama Sutasoma. Maka setelah dewasa Sutasoma sangat rajin beribadah, cinta akan agama Buddha (Mahayana). Ia tidak senang akan dinikahkan dan dinobatkan menjadi raja. Maka pada suatu malam, sang Sutasoma melarikan diri dari negara Hastina.

Maka setelah kepergian sang pangeran diketahui, timbullah huru-hara di istana, sang raja beserta sang permaisuri sangat sedih, lalu dihibur oleh orang banyak.

Setibanya di hutan, sang pangeran bersembahyang dalam sebuah kuil. Maka datanglah dewi Widyukarali yang bersabda bahwa sembahyang sang pangeran telah diterima dan dikabulkan. Kemudian sang pangeran mendaki pegunungan Himalaya diantarkan oleh beberapa orang pendeta. Sesampainya di sebuah pertapaan, maka sang pangeran mendengarkan riwayat cerita seorang raja, reinkarnasi seorang raksasa yang senang makan manusia.

Alkisah adalah seorang raja bernama Purusada atau Kalmasapada. Syahdan pada suatu waktu daging persediaan santapan sang prabu, hilang habis dimakan anjing dan babi. Lalu si juru masak bingung dan tergesa-gesa mencari daging pengganti, tetapi tidak dapat. Lalu ia pergi ke sebuah pekuburan dan memotong paha seorang mayat dan menyajikannya kepada sang raja. Sang raja sungguh senang karena merasa sangat sedap masakannya, karena beliau memang reinkarnasi raksasa. Kemudian beliau bertanya kepada sang juru masak, tadi daging apa. Karena si juru masak diancam, maka iapun mengaku bahwa tadi itu adalah daging manusia. Semenjak saat itu beliaupun gemar makan daging manusia. Rakyatnyapun sudah habis semua; baik dimakan maupun melarikan diri. Lalu sang raja mendapat luka di kakinya yang tak bisa sembuh lagi dan iapun menjadi raksasa dan tinggal di hutan.

Sang raja memiliki kaul akan mempersembahkan 100 raja kepada batara Kala jika beliau bisa sembuh dari penyakitnya ini.

Sang Sutasoma diminta oleh para pendeta untuk membunuh raja ini tetapi ia tidak mau, sampai-sampai dewi Pretiwi keluar dan memohonnya. Tetapi tetap saja ia tidak mau, ingin bertapa saja.

Maka berjalanlah ia lagi. Di tengah jalan syahdan ia berjumpa dengan seorang raksasa ganas berkepala gajah yang memangsa manusia. Sang Sutasoma hendak dijadikan mangsanya. Tetapi ia melawan dan si raksasa terjatuh di tanah, tertimpa Sutasoma. Terasa seakan-akan tertimpa gunung. Si raksasa menyerah dan ia mendapat khotbah dari Sutasoma tentang agama Buddha bahwa orang tidak boleh membunuh sesama makhluk hidup. Lalu si raksasa menjadi muridnya.

Lalu sang pangeran berjalan lagi dan bertemu dengan seekor naga. Naga ini lalu dikalahkannya dan menjadi muridnya pula.

Maka akhirnya sang pangeran menjumpai seekor harimau betina yang lapar. Harimau ini memangsa anaknya sendiri. Tetapi hal ini dicegah oleh sang Sutasoma dan diberinya alasan-alasan. Tetapi sang harimau tetap saja bersikeras. Akhirnya Sutasoma menawarkan dirinya saja untuk dimakan. Lalu iapun diterkamnya dan dihisap darahnya. Sungguh segar dan nikmat rasanya. Tetapi setelah itu si harimau betina sadar akan perbuatan buruknya dan iapun menangis, menyesal. Lalu datanglah batara Indra dan Sutasoma dihidupkan lagi. Lalu harimaupun menjadi pengikutnya pula. Maka berjalanlah mereka lagi.

Hatta tatkala itu, sedang berperanglah sang Kalmasapada melawan raja Dasabahu, masih sepupu Sutasoma. Secara tidak sengaja ia menjumpai Sutasoma dan diajaknya pulang, ia akan dikawinkan dengan anaknya. Lalu iapun berkawinlah dan pulang ke Hastina. Ia mempunyai anak dan dinobatkan menjadi prabu Sutasoma.

Maka diceritakanlah lagi sang Purusada. Ia sudah mengumpulkan 100 raja untuk dipersembahkan kepada batara Kala, tetapi batara Kala tidak mau memakan mereka. Ia ingin menyantap prabu Sutasoma. Lalu Purusada memeranginya dan karena Sutasoma tidak melawan, maka beliau berhasil ditangkap.

Setelah itu beliau dipersembahkan kepada batara Kala. Sutasoma bersedia dimakan asal ke 100 raja itu semua dilepaskan. Purusada menjadi terharu mendengarkannya dan iapun bertobat. Semua raja dilepaskan.

[sunting] Petikan dari kakawin ini

Di bawah ini diberikan beberapa contoh petikan dari kakawin ini bersama dengan terjemahannya. Yang diberikan contohnya adalah manggala, penutup dan sebuah petikan penting.

[sunting] Manggala

Ing Kakawin Sutasoma wonten manggalanipun. Manggala puniki mamuja Sri Bajraj��ana ingkang intisarinipun punika kasunyatan. Menawi panjenengipun nedahaken sliranipun, mila medal sang sem��di sang Boddhicitta lan mungguh ing galih. Sasampunipun pinten-pinten yuga ing pundi Bathara Brahma, Wisnu kaliyan Siwah ngreksa ingkang dharma, inggih sapunika wonten ing Kaliyuga, sang Buddha mandhap kagem nyirnakaken kuwasa ala.

1. 1 a. ��r�� Bajraj����na ����ny��tmaka parama sir��nindya ring rat wi��es.a
1 b. l��l�� ��uddha pratis.t.h��ng hredaya jaya-jay��ngken mah��swargaloka
1 c. ekacchattr��ng ��ar��r��nghuripi sahananing bhur bhuwah swah prak��rn.a
1 d. s��ks.��t candr��rka p��rn.��dbhuta ri wijilira n sangka ring Boddhacitta

2 a. Singgih yan siddhayog����wara wekasira sang s��tmya l��wan bhat.��ra
2 b. Sarwaj����m��rti ����ny��ganal alit inucap mus.t.ining dharmatattwa
2 c. Sangsipta n p��t wulik ring hati sira sekung ing yoga l��wan sam��dhi
2 d. Byakta lwir bhr��ntacitt��ngrasa riwa-riwaning nirmal��cintyar��pa

3 a. Ndah y��ka n mangkana ng ����nti kine��ep i tutur sang huwus siddhayogi
3 b. P��jan ring j����na ��uddh��primita ��aran.��ning miket langwa-langwan
3 c. D��r�� ngwang siddhakawy��ngitung ahiwang apan tan wruh ing ����stra m��tra
3 d. Nghing k��
wran d��ning ambek raga-ragan i manah sang kaw��r��ja ��obha

4 a. P��rwaprast��waning parwaracana ginelar sangka ring Boddhak��wya
4 b. Ng��ni dw��p��ra ring treat kretayuga sirang sarwadharm��nggaraks.a
4 c. Tan l��n hyang Brahma Wis.n.w����wara sira matemah bh��pati martyaloka
4 d. Mangk�� n pr��pta ng kali ��r�� Jinapati manurun matyana ng k��la murkha

• Terjemahan

1 a. Sri Bajraj��ana, manifestasi sempurna Kasunyatan adalah yang utama di dunia.
1 b. Nikmat dan murni teguh di hati, menguasai semuanya bagai kahyangan agung.
1 c. Beliau adalah titisan Pelindung tunggal yang menganugrahi kehidupan kepada tri buwana ��� bumi, langit dan sorga ��� seru sekalian alam.
1 d. Bagaikan terang bulan dan matahari sifat yang keluar dari batin orang yang telah sadar.

2 a. Ia yang diterangi, yang manunggal dengan Tuhan, memang benar-benar Raja kaum Yogi yang berhasil.
2 b. Perwujudan segala ilmu Kasunyatan baik kasar ataupun halus, diajikan dalam sebuah doa dan puja yang khusyuk.
2 c. Singkatnya, mari mencari-Nya dengan betul dalam hati, didukung dengan yoga dan samadi penuh.
2 d. Persis bagaikan seseorang yang merana hatinya merasakan rasa kemurnian Yang Tak Bisa Dibayangkan.

3 a. Maka itulah ketentraman hati yang dituju seorang yogi sempurna.
3 b. Biarkan aku memuja dengan kemurnian dan kebaktian tak tertara sebagai sarana untuk menulis syair indah.
3 c. Mustahil aku akan berhasil menulis kakawin sebab tiada tahu akan tatacara bersastra.
3 d. Namun, sungguh malu dan terganggu oleh pikiran akan sebuah penyair sempurna di ibukota.

4 a. Pertama dari semua cerita yang saya gubah diturunkan dari kisah-kisah sang Buddha.
4 b. Dahulukala ketika dwapara-, treta- dan kretayuga, beliau merupakan perwujudan segala bentuk dharma.
4 c. Tiada lain sang hyang Brahma, Wisnu dan Siwa. Semuanya menjadi raja-raja di Mercapada (dunia fana).
4 d. Dan sekarang pada masa Kaliyuga, Sri Jinapati turun di sini untuk menghancurkan kejahatan dan keburukan.

[sunting] Penutup

148.

1 a. N��han t��ntyanikang kath��ti��aya Boddhacarita ng iniket
1 b. D�� sang kawy aparab mpu Tantular amarn.a kakawin alang��
1 c. Khy��t��ng rat Purus.��da����nta pangaranya katuturakena
1 d. D��rgh��yuh sira sang rumengwa tuwi sang mamaca manulisa

2 a. Bhras.t.a ng durjana ����nyak��ya kumeter mawedi giri-girin
2 b. D�� ��r�� r��jasa raja bh��pati sang angd.iri ratu ri Jawa
2 c. ��uddh��mbek sang as��wa tan salah ulah sawarahira tinut
2 d. S��k w��r��dhika m��wwu y��ka magaw�� resaning ari teka

3 a. Ramya ng s��gara parwat��ki sakapunpunan i sira lengeng
3 b. Mwang tang r��jya ri Wilwatikta pakar��jyanira n anupama
3 c. K��rn.��kang kawi g��ta lambing atuh��nwam umarek i haji
3 d. Lwir sang hyang ��a��i rakwa p��rn.a pangapusnira n anuluhi rat

4 a. Bh��da mwang damel I nghulun kadi patangga n umiber I lemah
4 b. Ndan d��ra n mad.an��ka pan wwang atim��d.ha kumawih alang��
4 c. Lwir bhr��n.t��gati dharma ring kawi turung wruh ing aji sakath��
4 d. Nghing sang ��r�� Ran.amanggal��ki sira sang titir anganumata.

• Terjemahan

148

1 a. Maka inilah akhir dari sebuah cerita indah dan digubah dari kisah sang Buddha.
1 b. Oleh seorang penyair bernama mpu Tantular yang menggubah kakawin indah.
1 c. Termasyhur di dunia dengan nama Purusadasanta (pasifikasi raja Purusada).
1 d. Semoga semua yang mendengarkan, membaca dan menyalin akan panjang umurnya.

2 a. Hancur lebur para durjana, tak berdaya, gemetar, takut karena ngeri.
2 b. Oleh Sri Rajasa yang bertakhta di Jawa.
2 c. Para abdinya berhati murni dan melaksanakan segala perintahnya tanpa salah.
2 d. Sungguh banyak para pahlawan unggul, jumlahnya ada ribuan yang memberikan rasa takut kepada para musuh.

3 a. Indahlah laut dan gunung di bawah penguasaannya.
3 b. Lan ibukota Wilwatikta (= Majapahit) sungguh indah di luar bayangan.
3 c. Banyaklah jumlah para penyair, tua dan muda yang menggubah nyanyian dan kakawin yang menghadap sang ratu.
3 d. Bagaikan Dewa Candra kekuasaannya menyinari dunia.

4 a. Berbeda dengan karyaku bagaikan gajah yang terbang di atas tanah.
4 b. Mustahillah menyamai karena orang bodoh yang seolah-olah menulis kakawin indah.
4 c. Seperti seseorang yang bingung mengenai kewajiban seorang penyair tidak mengenal peraturan bersyair.
4 d. Namun Sri Ranamanggala juga yang menjadi panutanku.

[sunting] Bhinneka Tunggal Ika

Kutipan ini berasal dari pupuh 139, bait 5. Lengkapnya ialah:

Rw��neka dh��tu winuwus Buddha Wiswa,

Bhinn��ki rakwa ring apan kena parwanosen,

Mangka ng Jinatwa kalawan ��iwatatwa tunggal,

Bhinn��ka tunggal ika tan hana dharma mangrwa.

Terjemahan:

• Konon Buddha dan Siwa merupakan dua zat yang berbeda.
• Mereka memang berbeda, tetapi bagaimanakah bisa dikenali?
• Sebab kebenaran Jina (Buddha) dan Siwa adalah tunggal
• Terpecah belahlah itu, tetapi satu jualah itu. Tidak ada kerancuan dalam kebenaran.

Gender, Ideology and Display

		Author: Suzanne DE VILLIERS HUMAN (University of the Free State, Bloemfontein) Published: September 2002 Abstract (E): This article takes the fact that we normally see works of art in reproduction as a starting point. If we see two slides juxtaposed in a lecture on art, our mind combines them. How does this combination influence the way we see these pictures? The visual association of motifs and their metaphorical meanings within specific contexts is analysed here, focusing on certain recurring ‘motifs’ of bodily postures and stressing the fact that bodily postures are always gendered. Abstract (F): Le point de départ de cet article est que nous voyons l’art à travers les reproductions qui en sont faites. Cette situation influe sur notre regard et notre interprétation, parce que ces reproductions ne sont jamais isolées. Cet article se propose d’analyser les manières dont le sens naît du contact de ces images dont le contexte est tout sauf indifférent. Il s’intéresse plus particulièrement au fait que ces rapports d’images tendent à faire nâitre des sens métaphoriques, d’une part, et que les images en question sont toujours marquées par un imaginaire sexué, d’autre part. Keywords: art history, reproduction of works of art, representation of women
		The comparison of images in reproduced form, including the arbitrary alterations of their dimensions and their reproductive distortions, displacements and manipulations, is part of the fabric of art history as a discipline. Preziosi (1989: 72) writes that: “From its beginnings as an academic discipline in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, filmic technologies have played a key role in analytic study, taxonomic ordering, and the creation of historical and genealogical narratives.” Craig Owens (1992: 327) quipped: “Art history is, of course, not the history of works of art: it’s the history of slides of works of art” and for André Malraux (1953: 30) “the history of art has been the history of that which can be photographed”. The slide lecture has enabled Art Historians since the nineteenth century to construct or orchestrate arguments that are visually persuasive. For Wölfflin – who is credited for the invention of the art historical practice of showing two slides at one time – the slide lecture was superior to the printed book, because it could take the linear path of the page, but it might also assume a more complicated structure (Nelson 2000: 430). Aby Warburg’s Mnemosyne-Bilderatlas which aimed at transmitting “social memory” in a non-linear and visual way, through reproductions of images fastened to forty panels in the Warburg library, is another example (Warburg 1999, Baumgart 1993). It might be conjectured that the technological developments of cinema and photography could have also ushered the use of new scholarly methods in other disciplines and have contributed to changing the shape of modern scholarship. For example Walter Benjamin (1969), that non-art historian and author of “The work of art in the age of mechanical reproduction” which was first published in 1936, proposed a way of writing that would be like a spatial design of juxtaposed patterns, a mosaic, rather than a consecutive argument. Such writing puts side by side fragmentary quotations and other details from many contexts. He called these “close-ups”, a concept suggesting cinematic montage. Benjamin’s Passagen Werk or Arcades Project develops a highly original philosophical method, incorporating juxtaposed visual images, which is best described as a dialectics of seeing (Buck-Morss 1989). Reproductive techniques have always been considered to increase the art historian’s capacity to do scientific research. Early in the history of the discipline, in 1893, Bernard Berenson wrote that: “when this continuous study of originals is supplemented by isochromatic photographs, such comparison attains almost the accuracy of the physical science” (Nelson 2000: 431). On the other hand, there is the awareness among art historians of the power of images in reproduced form. In tracing the historical pre-figurations of the art historical slide lecture Nelson (2000: 424 ff.) finds similarities between scientific lectures, and the popular entertainments of travelling showmen during the nineteenth century. Special phantasmagorical effects like the magic lantern – a variant of the camera obscura -, projected and reflected images, painted slides, smoke, and so on, were used in both cases. Recently, researchers in Visual Culture Studies have become increasingly sensitive to the effects of the ideological powers of reproduced visual images. It has even been argued that the new fields of Media Studies and Cultural Studies anticipated hyper-text effects now easily obtainable on the computer. The project of cultural criticism with its scholarly procedures of analytic comparison, juxtaposition and critical contrast anticipated such technological developments, which in turn make these procedures much easier. In advertisements of interactive academic computer software, connection by way of association, spatial juxtaposition through the superimposition of windows, and ‘evident’ visual meaning, are characteristics that are stressed. Terms used for these purposes are ‘associative’, ‘linked’, ‘hierarchical’, ‘dynamic’, ‘visual’, and ‘genetic’. Such terms demonstrate a set of assumptions about how scholars go about their work. Art historians are not the only scholars influenced by these technological innovations. For an electronic journal article in the field of Visual Culture Studies it seems an appropriate strategy to demonstrate how an ideologically biased presentation of visual images anamorphically distorts them in the minds’ eye. By juxtaposing seemingly disparate images, their visual links based on shared motifs and metaphoric references, sometimes over centuries, are brought to the fore. In this way, it is hoped that some veiled nuances of ideological meaning will be teased out. In this presentation designed for reading on a computer, an argument is put forward by means of the visual association of motifs and their metaphorical meanings within specific contexts, like many mirrors reflecting into one another. (1) The selected images are not interspersed with the written text, but rather presented together, to form a visual argument parallel to the text. This enables the reader on a word processor to screen the text and images in separate windows for simultaneous viewing. In an endeavour to self-critically confront the very anamorphically manipulated sequences of display in this computer presentation, it is concluded with a reflection on the power of images over the scholar of visual culture. Patterned directives, blindspots and insights behind the scholar’s own intuitive predilections for and selections of certain images are sought. 1. Foolish bodily postures The (explicit or implicit) application of clownish bodily postures relates the visual images in this presentation. Alertness to bodily postures and gestures builds upon Aby Warburg’s kulturwissenschaftliche legacy (Warburg 1999, Baumgart 1993). My reading of these clownish postures is enriched by a spectrum of nuances or layers of meaning – of what Vandenbroeck (1987: 149) calls a ‘boodschapperwaaier’ or ‘denotatie- en connotatie spektrum’ (2) – ensconced in the history of the representation of the Fool as a type. Vandenb roeck argues that grotesque representations of the figure of the marginalized Fool often uncovers the dark and unfathomable underside of civilized societies in which Knowledge and Reason are overvalued. (3) The recurring clownish postures in the following analysis, albeit ludicrously, has the explosive power (‘innere Sprengkraft’) of a pathos formula which expresses the “limits of rationality” where ideology is palpable. The argument is introduced through a painting by David Salle, Symphony Concertante II (1987) (Figure 1). Two of Salle’s characteristic grisaille nude dancers are posed, one in leg warmers and T-shirt, provocatively baring a view of her buttocks, the other half-clothed in a ballet skirt. Both hold strenuous poses, reminiscent of the muscle aching toil of artists’ models working for ‘great masters’ who have been painting apparently relaxed and passive female nudes in the nude genre since the Renaissance. Salle’s monochrome gray treatment of his provocative models reminds of black and white photography – the cheapest form of mass image reproduction. 1. David Salle (b. 1952). Symphony Concertante II (1987). Oil, acrylic and photosensitized linen on canvas, 78 x 96 cm. Ellyn and Saul Dannison Family Collection (Whitney 1994:118). Each youthful woman holds a violin behind her back. The association of music and eroticism is common in ‘high art’, but also in the spheres of kitsch and soft porn. Salle may well be overtly referring to Man Ray’s well known photograph Le violon d’Ingres (1924). Two more images are painted over the grisaille nudes. One is a small brightly coloured portrait painting of a military officer with a distinctly smug facial expression, maybe a representation of a voyeur, and the other is of a familiar gaudily decorated vessel floating in the air, a recurrent motif in paintings by Salle. There is also an illusionary painting of a black and white photographic print at the top of the painting, the right. It depicts a female in a clownish pose, reminiscent of some photographs of female hysterics taken by Jean Martin Charcot (Figure 2). Charcot provided this photograph with the caption Attitudes Passionnelles: Menacé. 2. Jean Martin Charcot. Attitudes passionnelles: menacé from his Iconographie photographique de la Salpêtrière (1877-80) (Isaak 1996: 159). Charcot was Freud’s mentor and the discoverer/inventor of the female psychic affliction of ‘hysteria’, at the Salpêtrière asylum in Paris. He endeavoured to lay bare the underlying pathology of hysteria, which afflicted an extraordinary number of women in the nineteenth century, by photographically “recording the stages” of various women’s hysterical fits, and constructing “a typical fit” from all these photographs. The “grande attaque hystérique, complète et régulière” (one stage of which is called “clownism”) is a masterful conjecture, consisting of several images of different women with ‘incomplete’ hysterical attacks, assembled to complete the ‘clinical picture’ and provide an image of completion (Schade 1993: 465-570, Isaak 1996: 165). The photograph reproduced here is from Charcot’s full series published in Iconographie photographique de la Salpêtrière in 1877-80. The undefined dark background, the luminosity of the figure, the lack of distinguishing clothing (similar to the Salle “photograph” at the top right), all drawing attention to the facial expression, bear evidence of the manipulative hand of Charcot, who also considered himself to be an artist. There are striking visual resemblances between this clownish female in Salle’s painting and some images of amusingly silly female models in a series of advertisements selected by Irving Goffman under the rubric “The ritualization of subordination” in his Gender advertisements (1976). In e.g. the New Freedom advertisement (Figure 3) from this series the likeness is remarkable. 3. New Freedom advertisement (no. 209) reproduced in Irving Goffman’s Gender advertisements under the rubric ‘The ritualization of subordination’ (Goffman 1976: 50). Goffman, a sociologist, assembled and systematized contemporary advertising images in which charming and enviable male and (more numerous) female models are displayed to attract the attention of potential consumers of a variety of goods. His aim in his book is to exhibit how human bodily postures and gestures of self-presentation, represented in isolation, as well as in various social and gendered relationships, unwittingly reflect social hierarchies and women’s social domination by men in patriarchal culture. He argues that the clownish postures under the above rubric display the female character’s childlike manageability and self-effacement. Seen in this context, the similarity between Salle’s grisaille nude exhibiting her bare behind, and the posture of the female in another Goffman advertisement under the same rubric (Figure 4), is also striking. The clownish protrusion of the lower rear in this advertisement can be read, in line with Goffman, as a defiant, but playful gesture, ingratiating in purpose. These comparisons highlight the similarity in ambience of the posture of the Salle model in grisaille and the clownish antics of the Salle female in the illusionary photograph at the top of the painting. 4. Advertisement (no. 215) reproduced in Irving Goffman’s Gender advertisements under the rubric ‘The ritualization of subordination’ (Goffman 1976: 50). Composed of representations of the female body in the nude, David Salle’s post-modern paintings serve to simultaneously arouse and to initiate an intellectual response. On the one hand, it is true that his images are often culled and developed from soft porn magazine photographs, and on the other hand, his work has been described as hyper-literate (Whitney 1994: 40). The remoteness, coldness and greyness of his nudes are often cited in defence against allegations of his pornographic objectification of women. His work refers overtly and even oppressively to pornography, but is simultaneously a renewed and post-modern confrontation with the ‘high art’ subject of the female nude in Western art. The representation of the female body in the nude has been problematic ever since feminism and Salle knows that “his hand is right in the fuse” (Whitney 1994: 48). Salle’s fascination with the ambivalence of remoteness and familiarity; distance and earthy sensuousness; coldness and warmth; contemplation and arousal; melancholy and humour; blandness and eroticism; reverie and action; grisaille and warm colours; sardonic and scabrous humour, is augmented by the subtle play between concealment and revelation; veiling and revealing; concealing and uncovering. On the thinly painted surface of the canvas, representations are seemingly superimposed on one another in the manner of a palimpsest. Sanford Schwarz wrote in the New Yorker in 1984 (Whitney 1994: 51): Perhaps only in movies have we seen something of the gentle and diaphanous effect he gets, of different images simultaneously drifting back into and rising up from other images. Salle succeeds in disturbing the typical erotic and delicate ‘high art’ balance between concealment and exposure. He upsets the distinction between the obscenity of pornography and the containment of the ‘high art’ nude genre by posing his model to revealingly thrust her lower rear in the direction of the spectator, and simultaneously suggesting the remoteness of the female form by means of the monochrome grey tones and the polished, non-tactile application of paint. The significance of the representation of acts of concealing and revealing is made evident in the so-called Venus Pudica or Aphrodite of Modesty that can be considered to be the epitome of the female nude in Western culture. The example presented here is the marble Medici Venus in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence (Figures 5 and 6), represented as covering her genitals and breasts with draped fabric. The act of modestly covering her body from a frontal viewer is at the same time a charming exposure of the view of her naked body from the back – in particular since it was made for exhibition in a circular temple, exposed to viewers from all sides. 6. Medici Venus. Back view. (3rd century A.D). Roman. Marble copy of Greek original. Florence: Uffizi Gallery (Hinz 1988: 123). It is evident from the next two images that the gesture of revelation and exposure of the Venus of Modesty is considered to be worthy of imitation over many centuries. In a Maidenform advertisement (Figure 7) that derives from the famous photograph of Marilyn Monroe (Figure 8) posing over a subway grill and coquettishly pushing down the front of her gust blown dress to reveal her backside, the ineffectual concealing gesture is repeated. 8. Photograph of Marilyn Monroe. http://www.artfrombella.com/mm.html and http://www.teezz.co.uk/movies/index.shtml 7. Maidenform advertisement M185 (1987) (Goodrum & Dalrymple 1990: 81). The stance of the youthful female model in the Maidenform advertisement of 1987 can be compared with the clownish stance of Cucuba in an anonymous seventeenth-century Bolognese painting (Figure 9). The comparison is admittedly “picaresque” or subversively humorous in intention, but not too far-fetched. Both figures strain their backsides for rhetorical effect. Earthy sexuality is suggested by the protruded male buttocks in the picaresque painting, of two male commedia dell’arte characters acting out their gestural altercation. Cucuba’s silly gesticulations with raised arms are reminiscent of those of the Charcot and New Freedom models in Figure 2 and Figure 3. Not only the prancing stances and attenuated noses of the two male characters in the painting, but also their lifted and lowered swords, respectively implying momentary victory and defeat, are exaggerated low mode pointers to the erotic undertones of macho masculine competition. The association of female erotic attraction and clownish antics has been referred to in the context of the Salpêtriere photographs, the two ‘clownish’ Salle characters, as well as in the advertisements selected by Goffman, all suggesting the ‘ritualization of subordination’. The clownish female role of amorous trickster, or of the erotic ingénue, ironically at once aware of her exposure, and modest, like the Venus Pudica, is also evident in the Maidenform advertisement. 2. The ‘trickster connection’ 9. Anonymous Bolognese artist. Cucuba and other ‘commedia dell’arte’ characters (seventeenth century). Oil copy of one in a series of engravings by Jacques Callot. Published in Naples (1622) (Burke 1987: 4). Yet it is not only social subservience that is suggested with reference to the metaphor of the marginalized Fool. There is also a ‘trickster connection’ to the Fool as cultural type and an association with magic and sinister forces (cf. Berger 1997: 80,73, Vandenbroeck 1987: 133-136, Welsford 1935: 123). Hannah Wilke refers to such connotations in her final exhibition INTRA-VENUS that was shown posthumously. She documented in thirteen larger-than-life photographs, set out like the twelve Stations of the Cross, her confrontation with her own death from lymphatic cancer. In one of these photographs, January 30, 1992: #1 (Figure 10) she clowns, with a body covered in medical apparatus, like the South American dancer and movie star, Carmen Miranda, balancing, with raised arms, a bouquet of plastic flowers on her head. It is as if her whole oeuvre is re-assessed in this final clownish exhibition. In her signature style of humorous self-assured exhibitionist, she plays her last role – that of the grotesque dying crone. Bald, naked, bloated, scarred by chemotherapy and bone marrow treatments, hooked to IV tubes, Wilke assumes the whole array of stereotypical poses she has always assumed (Isaak 1996: 223). 10. Hannah Wilke (1940 – 1993). INTRA-VENUS. January 30, 1992: #1,1992-1993. Chromogenic supergloss print, 10,4 x 15,8 cm. Edition of 3 (Isaak 1996: 224). Wilke’s previous performances like Hannah Wilke: Super-T-Art and S. O. S. – Starification Object (1974) (Figure 11) were condemned for their exhibitionism and narcissistic indulgence, because of the obvious similarities between her seductive posing and the attractions of the femme fatale: The femme fatale, the ambiguous woman capable of many disguises, is the character in film noir who most embodies deception and deceitfulness, ‘a woman whose promise of surplus enjoyment conceals mortal danger ‘. (Isaak 1996: 221). 11. Hannah Wilke. S. O. S. – Starification Object (1974). In her final exhibition her disguise is that of the clown. The femme fatale’s ability to beguile, enmesh and ensnare is likened to the lures of the trickster. In a final trick she inverts the menacing associations of the femme fatale and death (Creed 1993: 151-166) by posing as the dying clown. The David Salle painting and the effective contemporary Maidenform advertisement produced for the mass print media are related by their subtle play on concealment and exposure. The comparison of these two images with images revealing the sinister aspects of the Fool, have brought veiled undercurrents of meaning to the fore. The power of images to sometimes transcend the conscious intentions of those who use and choose them is evident. 3. Self-critical reflection: the spectator as witness My analytical strategy used to hunt down, tease out and uncover und erlying meanings in visual material is modelled upon the example of those favoured in humorously subversive art. As in the Salle painting, the juxtaposition of these disparate images, is wilful and mischievous. It is a deliberately picaresque hermeneutic act, because it transgressively aims at exposing various ideological prejudices. This process acknowledges that art historians do not only bring modes of interpretation to works of art, but that objects of art suggest rhetorical possibilities for their interpretation; that images have power over scholars selecting and analysing them (cf. Holly 1990: 395, Cf. Baxandall 1979, Flax 1984). What the images I have shown have obviously in common is their references to the metaphor of the Fool. But the Fool is not only a popular subject in subversively humorous or ideology alert art, there also seem to be distinct representational strategies associated with the role of the picaresque Fool in such art. Some characteristic picaresque strategies shared over centuries by the Salle painting, the Wilke photograph, the seventeenth-century Bolognese painting and my presentation are: · An interest in bodily postures and gestures and an endeavour to foreground and move corporeal subjects, or at least subjects in whom the contemplative faculty is not privileged or disembodied. The Fool is known to communicate most effectively through bodily postures and gestures. This interest in the body, and more specifically the ribaldry of the lower body, conveys a basic, picaresque low mode sensibility. The carnal and corporeal dimensions of life are often invoked in order to humorously reverse the celebration of mind and intellect in more refined circles. The method of shaping an argument by intuitively associating images, rather than commencing with theoretical debate, aids in confronting the power of images over scholars of visual culture. · The Fool personifies play. The play impulse, the desire to invent and experiment, is always a factor in artistic creation, but has a specific character in ideology alert art where the critical breaking down, deconstruction and restructuring of familiar societal and artistic conventions and habits are at stake. Such debunking and resistance takes place by playing the fool; through improvisation and parody, or through mischievous juxtapositions and inversions. This presentation shows that the enviable image of female beauty and happiness is related to the marginalized cultural role of the Fool in society and to sinister associations in the history of its representation. · The simultaneous presence of anxiety and pleasure is a picaresque metaphoric attribute brought to the fore by the Fool’s posture. In the image of the Fool, associations of deception, illusion and magic, in a sinister as well as in a numinous sense, are often contracted. In modern usage the terms fool and folly refer either to stupidity or to sinister madness, and certain Fool’s attributes like the cap and bells still refer to the “trickster connection” of the Fool. In ideology alert texts the Fool often mediates to grotesquely suggest undercurrents of anxiety, pain, fear and desire in which ideologies are most palpable. · They alert viewers to the significance that interested responses to art have for gender difference. They employ the strategy of shock or direct address to pique viewers into an ‘ethical’ response to art; to awaken viewers to their ‘witness function’ (Van den Berg 1996, Bordo 1996) and the function of ‘solicitude’ (Ricoeur 1992). It is in this embarrassingly vulgar sexual provocation that the ideological character of art is revealed. Spectators are made to realize that they are implicated in judgements and pleasures. The resemblances between the strategies used in my representation and those used in the selected visual images do not seem to be coincidental; rather they seem patterned. The process of the selection of images was guided not only by the biased predilections of the researcher who found similarities between them, but also by the visual images themselves which “looked back”. The resemblance in the strategies used cannot be attributed to direct influence, but rather to being compromised to similar ideological motives. In his recent book The object stares back (1996), James Elkins not only draws attention to the subjective fallibility of the person who perceives, but also to the power that objects exert in the process of seeing. The result is that things are not what they appear to be. Seeing is not a straightforward natural process; seeing involves commitment and interpretation. This implies that in order to understand the world we need to decipher various presentations of meaning. Cultural presentations of meaning are rooted in cultural traditions and bear ideological baggage. Ideology alert art and analysis alert to the fact that the act of looking at cultural images is an act of witnessing. It is not a passive reception but “an act of bearing witness through sight” (Bordo 1996: 183). Bibliography BAUMGART, S. et al. (Hrsg.) 1993. Denkräume zwischen Kunst und Wissenschaft . 5. Kunsthistorikerinnentagung in Hamburg. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer. BAXANDALL, M. 1979. The language of art history . New Literary History 10(3): 453-465. [Reprinted in Kemal & Gaskell (eds.) 1991: 67-75.] BENJAMIN, W. 1969. The work of art in the age of mechanical reproduction . Arendt, H. (ed.) 1969. Illuminations. New York: Schocken: 217-251. Original source: Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung 5 (1) 1936. BERGER, P. L. 1997. Redeeming laughter. The comic dimension of human experience . New York: Walter de Gruyter. BORDO, J. 1996. The witness in the errings of contemporary art. Duro (ed.) 1996: 178-202. OWENS, C. 1992. Beyond recognition. Representation, power and culture. Bryson, N. et al. (eds.). 1992. Berkeley: University of California Press. BUCK-MORSS, S. 1989. The dialectics of seeing: Walter Benjamin and the Arcades project. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT. CHARCOT, J. M. 1877. Lectures on the diseases of the nervous system, delivered at La Salpetriére. Transl. By G. Sigerson. London: New Sydenham Society. CREED, B. 1993. The monstrous feminine: film, feminism, psychoanalysis. London: Routledge. ELKINS, J. 1997. The object stares back: on the nature of seeing. New York: Simon & Schuster. FLAX, N. 1984. Fiction wars of art. Representations 7: 1-25. GOFFMAN, E. 1976. Gender advertisements. New York: Harper & Row. HOLLY, M. A. 1990. Past looking. Critical Inquiry 16: 371-298. HOLLY, M. A. 1996. Past looking. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISAAK, J. A. 1996. Feminism and contemporary art. The revolutionary power of women’s laughter. London: Routledge. KEARNEY, R. 1988. The wake of the imagination. Ideas of creativity in Western culture. London: Hutchinson. MALRAUX, A. 1953. Museum without walls. The voices of silence. Trans. Stuart Gilbert. New York: Doubleday. NELSON, R. S. 2000. The slide lecture, or the work of Art History in the age of mechanical reproduction. Critical inquiry 26(3): 414 – 434. PREZIOSI, D. 1989. The panoptic gaze and the anamorphic archive. Preziosi 1989. Rethinking art history. Meditations on a coy science. New Haven: Yale University Press: 54-79. RICOEUR, P. 1992. Oneself as another. Chicago: Chicago University Press. SCHADE, S. 1993. Charcot und das Schauspiel des hysterischen Körpers. Die ‘Pathosformel’ als ästhetische Inszenierung des psychiatrischen Diskurses – ein blinder Fleck in der Warburg-Rezeption. Baumgart, S. et al. (Hrsg.) 1993. Denkräume zwischen Kunst und Wissenschaft. 5. Kunsthistorikerinnentagung in Hamburg. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer. VAN DEN BERG, D. J. 1996. A rhetorical typology of traditions of visual power. Acta Academica 28(3): 1-28. VANDENBROECK, P. 1987. Over wilden en narren, boeren en bedelaars. Beeld van de andere, vertoog over het zelf. Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap. Antwerpen: Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten. WARBURG, A. (1866-1929). 1999. The renewal of pagan antiquity: contributions to the cultural history of the European Renaissance. Translated by David Britt. Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute for the History of Art and the Humanities. WELSFORD, E. 1935. The fool. His social and literary history. London: Faber and Faber. WHITNEY, D. 1994. David Salle. New York: Rizzoli. Footnotes (1) The image of many mirrors reflecting into one another is used by Richard Kearney (1988) to describe the postmodern imagination. (2) A fan of meaning; a denotation and connotation spectrum. (3) Vandenbroeck (1987: 148), whose métier is early Dutch art, sets out on a “speurtocht” (detective search) in order to bring to light “historische zingevingsstructuren [.] die ‘onderhuids’ de cultuurproductie sturen (historical meaning giving structures [.] that navigate the production of culture from beneath the skin).” He demonstrates the close relationships among four recurring types (the clown, the peasant, the wild man/wild woman, and the beggar) as represented in the art of the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries. He concludes that in a specific culture the amount of attention given to foolishness and folly is relative to the value attributed to its inversion, Reason. Web source: http://www.imageandnarrative.be/gender/suzannedevilliershuman.htm

Pustaka Leluhur: Babad Bali

Lontar Raja Purana Bersumber dari buku terbitan Dinas Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Propinsi Daerah Tingkat I Bali tahun 1986 diterjemahkan oleh Drs. I Wayan Warna, Ida Bagus Gede Murdha B.A., Drs. I Nyoman Sujana, Ida Bagus Maka, Ida Bagus Sunu, I Dewa Gede Catra, Drs. I Gede Sura. Editor: Drs. I Wayan Warna, Ida Bagus Gede Murdha B.A. Isinya tentang cara pengaturan upacara yang dilaksanakan di pura Besakih pada masa penulisan Raja Purana ini, tentang laba pura, tentang banten yang dipersembahkan pada upacara-upacara tertentu. Berikut kami tayangkan bagian teks yang telah diterjemahkan dalam bahasa Indonesia… Lontar-lontar Usada (Ringkasan) Diterjemahkan oleh team pengkaji Lontar Universitas Udayana, Fakultas Sastra. Dipimpin oleh Bapak Drs. I Nyoman Suarka M Hum. Team ini telah berhasil mengalih-mediakan belasan lontar ke dalam CD. Sebuah terobosan budaya dalam usaha mengerahkan seluruh upaya teknologi dan estetika demi pelestarian salah satu unsur budaya yang hampir terlupakan. Team ini masih terus bergerak maju walaupun dengan dukungan yang minim. Yayasan Bali Galang memperoleh kepercayaan untuk ikut berperan dalam bidang pencitraannya. Berikut ditayangkan sesunting halaman-halaman depannya, untuk memberikan gambaran betapa pentingnya misi yang diemban oleh team ini… Lontar on CD – (edisi Babad on CD) Diterjemahkan oleh team pengkaji Lontar Universitas Udayana, Fakultas Sastra. Dipimpin oleh Bapak Drs. I Nyoman Suarka M Hum. Team ini telah berhasil mengalih-mediakan belasan lontar ke dalam CD. Sebuah terobosan budaya dalam usaha mengerahkan seluruh upaya teknologi dan estetika demi pelestarian salah satu unsur budaya yang hampir terlupakan. Team ini masih terus bergerak maju walaupun dengan dukungan yang minim. Yayasan Bali Galang memperoleh kepercayaan untuk ikut berperan dalam bidang pencitraannya. Berikut ditayangkan sesunting halaman-halaman depannya, untuk memberikan gambaran betapa pentingnya misi yang diemban oleh team ini… Terjemahan Lontar Babad Buleleng Diceriterakan setelah kalahnya Raja Bedahulu di Bali, akhirnya keadaan Bali pada saat itu menjadi tenang. Sehingga Patih Nirada Mada menjadi tidak senang disebutkan ada seorang pendeta yang sangat sempurna bernama Dhang Hyang Kepakisan. Beliau berputra tiga orang laki-laki dan seorang wanita. Salah satunya dimohon menjadi raja oleh Gajah Mada di Bangsul (Bali), bernama Sri Dalem Kresna Kepakisan, Baginda beristana di Samprangan, setelah beberapa generasi terakhir digantikan oleh Dalem Sagening… Terjemahan Lontar Babad Arya Gajah Para Dengan adanya ekspedisi Majapahit ke Bali. Bali pun pada akhirnya menjadi bagian kekuasaannya. Walaupun demikian di belahan Bali Timur terus terjadi gejolak penentangan. Untuk meredam gejolak tersebut, diutuslah Sirarya Gajah Para dan Sirarya Getas. Akhirnya kedua Arya tersebut tinggal di Sukangeneb, Toya Anyar, dan menurunkan beberapa keturunan. Selanjutnya Sirarya Getas diutus untuk mengadakan penyerangan ke Selaparang, beliaupun akhirnya menetap di sana (Praya)… Terjemahan Lontar Babad Ki Tambyak Ki Tambyak adalah putra dari Begawan Maya Cakru, semenjak lahir ia ditinggal oleh orang tuanya, akhirnya ia dijadikan anak angkat oleh Kebayan Panarajon. Sebagai anak angkat yang dipungut sewaktu masih bayi, kemudian tumbuh menjadi pemuda yang gagah dan berilmu sehingga disegani masyarakat lingkungannya. dalam hal ini bukan saja oleh masyarakat lingkungannya, bahkan raja Bedahulu pun mengangkatnya sebagai seorang patih… Babad Manik Angkeran Ida Bang Manik Angkeran adalah putra dari Dang Hyang Siddhimantra. Berikut kisah beliau, diambil dari sebuah terbitan untuk para pratisentananya. Terjemahan Lontar Babad Arya Kepakisan Bersumber dari buku terbitan Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, merupakan terjemahan dari lontar asli yang disimpan di Gedong Kirtya. Lontar Asta Bumi Lontar yang sangat penting dan menjadi pedoman pembuatan bangunan-bangunan suci. Lontar ini sedang kami terjemahkan dan kami sarikan di bagian lain dalam kelir babadbali.com, sedangkan naskah aslinya akan segera kami tayangkan di sini Daftar lontar Daftar lontar yang terdapat di Museum lontar Gedong Kirtya, Singaraja.

�� Yayasan Bali Galang 2000 – 2003. All rights reserved.

sumber pustaka: http://www.babadbali.com/pustaka.htm

Pentagon to deploy aviation unit to Iraq

WASHINGTON – Some 2,600 soldiers from a combat aviation unit will go to Iraq ahead of schedule, part of the support troops the Pentagon has said are needed to back the extra combat units President Bush is sending there.

Defense Secretary Robert Gates approved the deployment of the Army’s 3rd Infantry Division combat aviation brigade 45 days earlier than planned, meaning they will go around May, a Defense Department official said Friday.

The approval will mean roughly 30,000 troops eventually will go to Baghdad and Anbar Province in the Bush administration’s buildup to crack down on rising sectarian violence and insurgents, said the official, who was not authorized to speak publicly about the information.

The new aviation unit will provide transport helicopters and gunships to assist ground brigades already flowing in for the buildup. Officials said that Gen. David Petraeus, the new U.S. commander in Iraq, wanted the buildup to move as quickly as possible.

“This was requested over a month ago as part of the surge,” said Col. Steven Boylan, public affairs officer for Petraeus. “These are what we call the enablers.”

Two months ago, Bush ordered 21,500 additional American troops to Iraq to help calm the violence. He did not initially mention that support units would also be needed.

Officials later said that the number of support troops needed for the influx could be around 7,000. So far, these have included 2,400 combat support troops and 2,200 military police to help with an anticipated increase in detainees picked up during the crackdown.

Asked what he would say to critics of the steady additions to the original number, the Defense Department official said some of the requests came after Petraeus arrived in Iraq and assessed what he needed. He said Gates wants to give commanders what they believe they need to do the job as long as the requests are justified.

In an AP Radio interview, Canadian Army Major General Peter Devlin, deputy commanding general of coalition forces in Iraq, said of the extra troops, “What was always asked for was, beyond the combat formation, were the typical enablers that go along with combat formations.”

Asked whether there are likely to be more such requests, he said, “Yes. It is exactly something that you would expect, is that there is a need for support troops to do what they do.”

There are now roughly 142,000 U.S. troops in Iraq. About 60,000 are combat forces, the rest are support troops.

The Boston Globe reported on its Web site Thursday night that Petraeus had asked for an Army combat aviation unit with 2,500 to 3,000 troops, which were likely to come from the Army’s 3rd Infantry, citing unidentified senior Pentagon officials.

web source: http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070316/ap_on_go_ca_st_pe/us_iraq_troops_5

Buddha Joins the Moon

Tim Boyle

On February 2, 2007, Tim Boyle imaged the Moon shining behind a large statue of Buddha in Tsukuba, Japan. Boyle captured this view about 1 mile from the statue.

taken from:

http://www.astronomy.com/asy/default.aspx?c=ga&id=99&aid=5142

Hanacaraka: The Temple of Java

Home	The temples of Java

Background   History   Sites: Central Java East Java EJ Itineraries Maps 　 Iconography 　 Latest: New finds Updates 　   Themes: Instruments Sources 　 Bibliography 　 　 　 　 　   Welcome!This website contains background information about Javanese temples (or candisources consulted are not popularly available, and in the absence of a detailed guidebook covering these sites, I present this information here so that it may be of use to other travellers or people interested in Javanese history. , in Javanese) compiled from notes I have taken in preparation of, and during visits to a number of these temples. Because many of the There are at least 100 temple sites on Java, and new sites continue to be excavated through to this day. At present, this site gives information on about 40 of these selected based on historical and stylistic interest or significance. Links to these sites, pictures and site-specific maps can be accessed through the Central and East Java pages. The Maps page contains links to area maps. Further reading: background background This website is named after the Javanese alphabet [sample][about]. The logo is a palm-leaf book called in Javanese. The name and the logo express my love for Java and books, of which the content of this site is one result. Site written and designed by Masya Spekupdates] . Latest update: 20-December-2006 [see:

The Devasting Art of Pentjak Silat

	by Cass Magda
	The world’s largest archipelago stretches like a huge scimitar from Malaysia to New G uinea comprised of more than 13,000 islands and is home to a deadly fighting art known as “Silat”, or “Pentjak Silat.” In Malaysia, there are approximately 500 styles. In Indonesia there are perhaps 200 styles with many styles preferring not to be recognized by their respective governments. Accordingly, there may be an incalculable number of styles being practiced today. Archaeological evidence reveals that by the sixth century A.D. formalized combative systems were being practiced in the area of Sumatra and the Malay peninsula. Two kingdoms, the Srivijaya in Sumatra from the 7th to the 14th century and the Majapahit in Java from the 13th to 16th centuries made good use of these fighting skills and were able to extend their rule across much of what is now Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore. The Dutch arrived in the seventeenth century and controlled the spice trade up until the early 20th century, with brief periods of the English and Portuguese attempting unsuccessfully to gain a lasting foothold in Indonesia. During this period of Dutch rule. “Silat,” or “Pentjak Silat” (as it is known in Indonesia today) was practiced undergound until the country gained its independence in 1949. With the crisscrossing of wars, trade and immigration of various cultures across this region since the 6th century, the effect on present day Pentjak Silat is evident. These influences can be seen such as Nepalese music, Hindu weapons such as the trisula [forked truncheon], Indian grappling styles, Siamese costumes, Arabian weapons Chinese weapons and fighting methods. Pentjak Silat still plays an important role in the lives of thousands of people across the Malay world with the rural village dwellers practicing and making it part of their daily routines. The word “Pentjak” means; the body movements used in the training method and the word “Silat” means; the application of those movements or the actual “fight.” Each style of Pentjak Silat has its own formal curriculum, history and traditions, some shrouded in secrecy and some open to the public. “Silat Pulut” is a method that is openly displayed to the public, seen at public ceremonies such as weddings. “Pulut” means glutinous rice, the sticky kind often eaten at Malay parties and wedding receptions. Thus, this “Rice Cake Silat” is characterized by flashy, aesthetically beautiful moves that have very little to do with real self-defense. Silat Buah is rarely shown in public. Buah means “fruit,” implying that part of Silat which is useful. It is the applications or techniques for self-defense. Many systems inter-relate, function and integrate as a whole. Every move, physical or mental is consistent with a certain belief system and fighting rationale, making it a devastating self-defense system.		Topeng (mask)Raden Astra Miruda, before 1815. Central Java. page 1